The book of Shemot opens with the story of Israel in Egypt, but that constitutes only its first part. The book is broadly divided into three discrete narrative sections:[1]
1. Slavery and Redemption from Egypt (chapters 1-15).
2. Receiving the Torah at Sinai (chapters 19-24).
3. Building the Mishkan (chapters 25-40).[2]
What is the connection between these parts, each of which seems to constitute its own distinct unit? Does this book simply progress along a chronological continuum, recounting the events of the Exodus in accordance with the order of their occurrence?
It is tempting to adopt this approach; after all, most of the Shemot narrative does progress along a chronological trajectory.[3] Concurrent (and even earlier) events, however, appear in the books of Vayikra and Bamidbar, making a chronological explanation for the book's composite form unconvincing.[4]
Before we investigate the relationship between these themes, it is important to note that their linkage into one book is not self-evident. The construction of the Mishkan, in particular, could have been placed instead at the opening of the book of Vayikra, with its initial focus on sacrifices, that culminates in the ceremonious dedication of the building. Alternatively, the Mishkan's construction could have fit nicely with the book of Bamidbar, which situates the Mishkan at the center of the encampment and travels in the desert.
Food and Water Shortages, Amalek, and Yitro (Shemot 15:20-18:27)
Chapters 15:20-18:27 do not seem to constitute a distinctive unit, nor do these chapters fit easily into any of the narrative sections outlined above. Some scholars regard these chapters as the epilogue of the Egypt section,[5] while others regard them as the prelude to the Sinai unit.[6]
Possibly, these chapters belong to neither section, representing instead the chronological continuum of events that take place between the Exodus from Egypt and the nation's arrival at Sinai (15:20-18). Indeed, the stories involving Israel's grievances over shortages of water and food take place during Israel's initial foray into the desert (15:20-17:7). The battle with Amalek may also simply reflect a chronological incident (17:8-16).
However, the episode involving Yitro, when he helps Moses set up Israel's judicial infrastructure (chapter 18), seems to be out of order chronologically.[7] Yitro visits Moses "at the mountain of God" (18:5) – yet the Israelites only arrive at Mount Sinai in the next chapter (19:2)! Moreover, the scenario of Moses sitting in judgment, informing the people of God's statutes and His instructions, seems more likely to have occurred after the nation receives those laws at Sinai. The order of events as told in the book of Devarim further suggests that the system of judges established in Shemot 18 occurred after the events of Sinai.[8] In light of this, Ibn Ezra (18:1) suggests that the episode involving Yitro, a righteous non-Israelite, is deliberately placed out of chronological order, juxtaposed as a contrast to the hostilities with Amalek (Shemot 17:8-16), the archetypical enemy of Israel.[9] U. Cassuto picks up on Ibn Ezra's point, expanding on the linguistic parallels between these narratives.[10] Consider the following chart:
This remarkable concentration of parallels draws our attention to the profound differences between them: Amalek chooses to respond to Israel's miracle-laden (and divinely wrought) departure from Egypt with enmity and war, while Yitro regards Israel with awe, offering friendship and peace.
It seems that the book of Shemot is not bound to follow a chronological sequence of events, preferring (at least in the case of the Yitro narrative) to arrange its narratives based on other criteria. What, in fact, is the book's cohesive thread? What is the thematic connection between the book's three discrete units (Slavery and Redemption, Sinai, and Mishkan)? How do the chapters between the Exodus unit and the Sinai unit (Shemot 15:20-18:27) fit into the thematic continuum of the book?
The Purpose of the Plagues
To begin, we will turn our attention to the centerpiece of the Exodus narrative: the long-winded sequence of plagues (chapters 7-12). Midrashim often question why God chooses to extricate His nation from Egypt in such a drawn-out manner:
Could not the Holy One, blessed be He, have rescued Israel from Egypt with the first plague? (Shemot Rabba 15:10)
Rabbinic commentators submit various answers to this conundrum, each of which should be examined on its own merit. For the moment, I will propose one approach, which does not exclude others but may help us to understand the topic at hand, namely, the coherence of the book of Shemot.
Prior to the onset of the plagues, God instructs Moses to inform Israel of the upcoming events (Shemot 6:6-8). He declares that He will bring "great judgments" to extract Israel from Egypt (6:6),[11] explaining the purpose of these judgments as follows: "And you will know that I am the Lord, your God, who has removed you from under the burdens of Egypt" (6:7). Israel seems to have lost its connection with God in Egypt and requires the educative value these events hold for the wayward nation.
In Shemot 7:5, God again informs Moses that He intends to remove Israel from Egypt by employing "great judgments." This time, however, God directs His message toward Egypt: "And Egypt will know that I am the Lord, when I stretch my hand out over Egypt and remove the children of Israel from their midst." This lesson is necessitated by Pharaoh's previous disdainful dismissal of God: "Who is God that I should listen to His voice and send Israel out? I do not know this God and I will not send Israel out" (Shemot 5:2).
According to these passages, God brings great judgments (and thus delays the Exodus) in order to foster knowledge of God. He aims this knowledge to two different recipients (to the nation and to the world), with the goal that both of them – Israel and Egypt – will acquire knowledge of Him.[12]
Knowledge of God: Israel and the Nations
One can discern in this dual message both the beginnings and the future aspirations of Israel. The nation's roots go back to Abraham, whose original blessing has both national and universal dimensions:
And I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you and I will uplift your name… and through you all the families of the earth will be blessed. (Bereishit 12:2-3)
God chooses Abraham to conceive a great and blessed nation, one that obtains blessing through its own unique relationship with God but also brings blessing to the world.
In the story of the Exodus, Israel begins to actualize Abraham's role. God desires that Israel acquire knowledge of Him, but He also designates Israel to be a vehicle – albeit a passive one, for now – for educating the world to know God. The story revolves around liberating Israel from slavery, but the plagues and the Exodus will force the world to see God's greatness.
This dual goal will accompany Israel's entrance into the land, where God parts the waters of the Jordan, so that, "You (Israel) will know that the living God is amongst you" (Yehoshua 3:10). Later, God explains that the drying up of the Jordan has a universal goal as well (Yehoshua 4:24): "So that the nations of the earth will know the hand of the Lord." National autonomy in the land of Israel constitutes a new opportunity both to acquire and to – now, actively – spread knowledge of God.
A similar duality of objectives appears in later biblical narratives, especially in those that appear at watershed moments in Israel's history. Consider, for example, the launch of the Davidic dynasty, inaugurated by David in his dramatic encounter with Goliath. David's courageous speech sets the tone for the Davidic kings, revealing the dual goals (national and universal) that will guide their policies:
And David said to Goliath, "You come to me with the sword, the spear, and the javelin. But I come to you with the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the battlements of Israel, whom you have blasphemed. Today, the Lord shall release you into my hands and I will smite you and remove your head from upon you and I will place the corpse of the Philistine camp today for the birds of the heaven and the beasts of the field. And all the earth will know that there is a God in Israel. And all this congregation will know that the Lord does not save with the sword and the spear. (I Shmuel 17:45-47)
Similarly, in the pivotal showdown between Elijah and the priests of the Baal on the Carmel Mountain, Elijah alludes to the seminal goal of promoting both national and universal knowledge of God:
And Elijah the Prophet drew near and said, Lord, God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob! Today it will be known[13] that you are the God in Israel, and I am Your servant, and according to Your word I have done all these things. Answer me, Lord, answer me, and let thisnation know that you are the Lord God!" (I Melakhim 18:36-37)
Later prophets likewise brandish Israel's national and universal roles, in ways too numerous to list here. As an example, I will cite from Yechezkel, who explicitly uses the word yada (to know) in portraying God's design for the ideal end of days:
And I will place My spirit amongst you, and you will revive, and I will place you on your land and you will know that I am the Lord, I have spoken, and I have done, says the Lord… And My dwelling place shall be within you, and I will be for you a God and they will be for me a nation. And the nations will know that I am the Lord, who consecrates Israel, when My Temple is in their midst for eternity. (Yechezkel 37:14, 27-28)
The Plague Narrative: Focus on Egypt
Although the plague narrative is devised to radiate knowledge of God in both national and universal directions, it focuses disproportionate attention on cultivating Egypt's knowledge of God. Moses informs Pharaoh repeatedly that these events are designed so that he and his cohorts will know God:
Go to Pharaoh… and say to him… so says the Lord, with this you will know that I am the Lord. Behold, I will strike the water in the Nile with the staff that is in my hand, and it shall turn to blood. (Shemot 7:15-18)
And [Moses] said [to Pharaoh], "Just as you say, so that you will know that there is no Lord like our God, [tomorrow] the frogs will turn aside from you and from your houses. (Shemot 8:6-7)
And I will separate on that day the land of Goshen… so that there will be no arov, so that you will know that I am God in the midst of the land. (Shemot 8:18)
The bid to foster Egypt's knowledge of God crops up repeatedly during the plague narrative, appearing also in 9:14, 9:29, 11:7, 14:4, and 14:18. The narrative returns its attention to Israel's knowledge only once, recalling that it too is one of the goals of this protracted story:
And the Lord said to Moses, Come to Pharaoh, for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his servants, so that I can place these signs of Mine in his midst and so that you can tell this in the ears of your children and your grandchildren, all that I have wrought in Egypt and My signs that I have placed amongst them. And you will know that I am the Lord. (Shemot 10:1-2)
However, Israel remains noticeably absent during most of the plague narrative. While we occasionally hear mention of God sparing the land of Goshen, the story seems intent on directing its messages to the Egyptians more than to Israel.
At this point, we must investigate whether these goals were attained. Did the Exodus succeed in disseminating both national and universal knowledge of God?
To answer this, the obvious place to start is with the Song at the Sea (Shemot 15), which functions as the poetic finale to the narrative unit. In fact, the song does record the reactions of both Israel and the other nations to the miracles of the Exodus. Israel repeatedly recognizes God in the song, declaring that God is a "man of war," that His right hand is glorious in strength, and that there is none like Him. Nations respond to the events with fear and panic. However, at no point in the song does the keyword yada (knowledge) appear, suggesting that the responses recorded in the song are not the result of acquired intellectual knowledge, but are rather spontaneous emotional reactions to a stunning event.
Knowledge (Yedi'a) in the Transitional Chapters
Intriguingly, it is in the transitional chapters between the Exodus narrative and arrival at Sinai that the word yada appears, several times. In his encounter with Moses, the non-Israelite Yitro declares his newfound knowledge of God, a direct result of the events of the Exodus:
And Yitro said, "Blessed is the Lord, who saved you from the hand of Egypt and from Pharaoh's hand, who saved His nation from under the hand of Egypt. Now I know that the Lord is greater than any god!" (Shemot 18:10-11)
Perhaps this can offer another reason to explain why the Yitro story is placed out of chronological order: because it shares an underlying theme with the chapters preceding it, addressing the educational success of the Exodus. Chapter 18 functions as an epilogue to the Exodus story, illustrating that the narrative has certainly achieved one part of its stated goals – by increasing universal knowledge of God. Yitro's words show that God's actions have indeed impacted the outside world, providing the means for the nations to recognize God – His omnipotence and unparalleled supremacy.[14] We see this later in the Bible as well: on the eve of the conquest of the land, Joshua's spies will meet the non-Israelite Rachav in Jericho, and she will further confirm (using the word yada) that the Exodus story has affected the nations:
And she said to the men, "I know that the Lord has given you the land, and your fear fell upon us, and all the inhabitants of the land quake before you.[15] For we heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea before you when you exited Egypt… we heard, and our hearts melted and no one had the spirit to stand against you, for the Lord, your God, He is the God in the heavens above and on the earth below." (Joshua 2:9-11)
The earlier transitional chapters (15:22-17:7), where Israel complains about food and water, also employ the word yada. There, however, the word appears in a context that offers insight into the state of Israel's perception of God following the miracles of the Exodus. Disappointingly, the word yada highlights Israel's deficiencies; it turns out that the events of the Exodus have not caused Israel to know God. In both of the following citations, God and Israel's leaders contrive a scenario designed to finally impart knowledge of God to the intractable people:
And Moses and Aaron said to all the children of Israel, "Evening, and you will know that the Lord took you out of Egypt!" (Shemot 16:6)
And God said to Moses, "I heard the complaints of the children of Israel. Speak to them saying, 'In the evening you will eat meat, and in the morning you will eat your fill of bread, and you will know that I am the Lord your God." (Shemot 16:11-12)
Like chapter 18, chapters 15-17 function as an epilogue to the Egypt narrative, examining whether it has met its goals – but here, with regard to Israel itself, the answer is in the negative. These chapters feature a nation that has so far failed to glean proper knowledge of God from the miraculous events. The complaints demonstrate a stark absence of knowledge of God among Israel, who question whether God will be able to provide water or food. These chapters trail off with Israel's loutish query (Shemot 17:7): "Is God in our midst (be-kirbeinu) or not?" How could the nation doubt God's presence in their midst after the series of miracles wielded on their behalf? Israel's query is especially troubling in its linguistic evocation of the plague of arov, which utilized similar words to establish God's presence: "So that you will know that I am the Lord in the midst (be-kerev) of the land" (Shemot 8:18). It turns out that Israel learned nothing of God's presence from the plague! How is it possible that non-Israelites have acquired proper knowledge of God from the Exodus, while Israel, who are the direct beneficiaries of God's miracles, do not?
Different Types of Knowledge: Israel and the Nations
Perhaps the explanation lies in the different expectations that God has for Israel and the nations. God wants the nations simply to acknowledge His presence in the world, His unequalled greatness. This type of knowledge can be acquired simply by witnessing the plagues, which establish God's existence and superiority. On the other hand, as we see in the chapters following the Exodus, God expects Israel to obtain a different sort of knowledge, one that does not merely recognize God's general presence but believes in its constancy and reliability, maintaining staunch faith that God can provide their needs for everyday survival. The plague narrative may be sufficient to establish that God is "in the midst of the land," but it does not necessarily indicate that God is "in the midst of Israel," providing for its daily, mundane needs. To put it simply: Just because God performs dramatic, one-time wonders does not mean that He will provide bread and water on a regular basis. The miracles in Egypt illustrate the former, but do not provide adequate basis for a daily relationship with God.
This could explain why Israel continues to question God despite witnessing the miracles of the Exodus. It is not that they doubt God's existence, His ability to suspend nature, or His omnipotence. They simply question whether He is a God Who intends to interact with His nation on an intimate, ongoing basis.
A careful examination of the original biblical passages stating the goals of the Exodus reveals that these different expectations attend the respective goals vis-à-vis Israel and the nations. In chapter 7, God's "great judgments" lead directly to Egypt's knowledge of God:
And I will take out my hosts, my nation, the children of Israel with great judgments. And Egypt will know that I am the Lord when I stretch my hand out over Egypt and remove the children of Israel from their midst. (Shemot 7:4-5)
In contrast, from a linguistic viewpoint, when God guides Israel to knowledge of Him, the "great judgments" do not lead immediately to that goal. Instead, they will need two additional steps to arrive at that knowledge:
Therefore, say to the children of Israel, I am the Lord, and I will take you out from under the burdens of Egypt, and I will save you from their labors, and I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with great judgments. And I will take you for me as a nation and I will be for you a God, and you will knowthat I am the Lord, your God, who has removed you from under the burdens of Egypt." (Shemot 6:6-7)
Israel's Knowledge of God
The two steps necessary to move from God's great judgments to Israel's knowledge of God are designed to construct a reciprocal relationship:
1. God will select Israel as His nation ("I will take you for Me as a nation.")
2. Israel will accept God's divine role over them ("I will be for you a God.")
Only after forging this unique relationship will Israel have the ability to meet the expectations of its knowledge of God.
When does God take Israel as a nation? The second narrative section in the book of Shemot ("Receiving the Torah at Sinai") opens with God's declaration of His intention to do so:
And now, if you truly listen to My voice and guard My covenant, you will be a treasure for Me from all the nations, for the whole world is Mine. And you will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation. (Shemot 19:5-6)
Both Ibn Ezra and Nachmanides maintain that the phrase in Shemot 6:7, "And I will take you for Me as a nation," refers to God giving Israel the Torah at Sinai.
This, however, is only the first step in Israel's journey toward knowledge of God. Before they can reach that ultimate objective, there is a second step: Israel must accept God upon themselves; "And I will be for you a God." That acceptance can be acquired by adhering to the instructions found in the third narrative section of the book, "The Construction of the Mishkan." The goal of the Mishkan is daily service. Every morning, Israel is meant to sacrifice one lamb, and every afternoon, a second lamb (Shemot 29:39). This daily offering constitutes the core of the service in the Mishkan. It is mundane and uneventful, but it bespeaks Israel's faithfulness and the reliability of their religious commitment. Daily service of God facilitates God's promise that He will dwell in the midst of the children of Israel and "I will be for them a God" (Shemot 29:45).
This concludes the second step designed to lead to Israel's knowledge of God. Following this, Israel will finally realize the objective of the Exodus:
And they will know that I am the Lord their God, who took them out of the land of Egypt to dwell amongst them. I am the Lord their God. (Shemot 29:46)
To achieve knowledge of God, Israel must progress along the trajectory of the book of Shemot. They first experience the great judgments of the Exodus, establishing God's presence in the world. That knowledge is insufficient for Israel's aspirations, which aim higher than the simple recognition of God that suffices for other nations. Israel progresses towards its unique goal in the narrative unit that follows the Exodus. There, God embraces Israel as His unique nation, bequeathing upon them the gift and responsibility of the Torah. And then, in the final narrative section of the book, Israel constructs the Mishkan. Daily service in the Mishkan lacks spectacular miracles, or the sensational drama of a one-time event. Instead, it fosters daily commitment, which introduces a new type of relationship. Routine service of God forges a relationship of daily encounters, experiences woven into the ordinary exigencies of life. This produces a constant awareness of God, establishing Him as a daily presence in their lives. It is only with this type of relationship that Israel will be able to acquire the confidence to believe that God intends to care for the nation's daily needs, providing food and water in the desert. Once Israel makes God a part of its daily life, they have the ability to perceive that God is not just in the world, but functions daily in Israel's midst.
The book of Exodus is the book of internalizing knowledge of God. While the nations of the world know God through the drama of the plagues, Israel must travel through the full journey of the book of Shemot – experiencing its three themes (Slavery and Redemption, Sinai, and Mishkan) – to acquire the requisite knowledge of God.
[1] U. Cassuto, Commentary on Exodus (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967) xi-xvi divides the book into these three sections. Other scholars posit two broad sections, although in different ways. A. Hakham, Shemot Vol. 1, Daat Mikra (Jerusalem: Mossad HaRav Kook, 1991), 14-15, for example, divides the book into two geographical sections: the Exodus from Egypt followed by the Sinai\Mishkan narrative. M. Z. Segal's bipartite division, in Introduction to the Bible (Jerusalem: Kiryat Sefer, 1955) pp. 85-89, distinguishes between historical passages (from Egypt to Sinai) and theological ones (the Mishkan).
[2] While it is intriguing that the Golden Calf story is embedded in the Mishkan unit, in this shiur we will examine only the broad strokes of the book.
[3] A notable exception seems to be the events of Shemot 18, which appear to take place following events in chapter 19, as we will discuss.
[4] For example, Bamidbar 9:1 and Shemot 40:1 both take place in the first month of the second year in the desert, while Vayikra 25:1 records God's speech to Moses while they were still at Har Sinai.
[5] Cassuto, Exodus, xii-xiii, regards the first section (Israel's complaints and the war with Amalek) as the epilogue to the Exodus narrative, while presenting the story of Yitro as the prologue of the Sinai narrative.
[6] Amos Chakham, Sefer Shemot. Daat Mikra (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 1991) pp.15-16 [Heb.], cites Yehuda Kiel, who appears to advocate for this position. Moreover, Kiel notes that according to his division, each of the three sections concludes with poetic language. He also observes that the conclusions of all three sections allude to a theophany (see Shemot 15:1-18, especially verse 2; 24:10, 16-17; 40:34-38). The presence of a divine revelation at the conclusion of each section in the book of Shemot coheres with Nachmanides' position that the redemption from Egypt is not complete until God places his presence amongst the nation.
[7] This is a matter of long-standing debate among rabbinic commentators (see the argument in Zevachim 116a). While Nachmanides weighs in on the side of those who see chapter 18 in chronological order, many commentators observe that the chapter must not be in its chronological sequence, for the reasons we will discuss.
[8] See Devarim 1:6, 9-19.
[9] See also Radak, Shoftim 1:16. Ibn Ezra observes that the contrast between these stories continues in I Shmuel 15:6-7, where Saul distinguishes between the Amalekites, who are to be annihilated by divine mandate, and the descendants of Yitro, who live in their midst.
[10] U. Cassuto, Commentary on Exodus (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967) p. 212.
[11] Bechor Shor (Shemot 6:6) maintains that these "great judgments" are the plagues (and perhaps also the events at the Reed Sea). He asserts that God intentionally delays the Exodus for purposes of both vengeance and disseminating God's name. Others explain that God's great judgments refer specifically to the miraculous events at the Reed Sea.
[12] In this schema, Egypt stands for the broader world; these miraculous events aspire to universal impact, widely spreading knowledge of God.
[13] The unspecific phraseology, "it will be known" suggests a broader, universal knowledge.
[14] Amalek, on the other hand, wages war against Israel seemingly without fear or awareness of God's presence. This continues the above-noted contrast between Yitro and Amalek.
[15] Rachav's phrase linguistically echoes the song of the sea (Shemot 15:15): "All the inhabitants of Canaan quaked."
No comments:
Post a Comment